Good Governance....is All about Leadership

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All About Leadership Leading is about setting direction and ensuring that that direction is followed. Leading can apply to leading oneself, other individuals, groups, organizations and societies. The nature of how leading is done depends on the context of the situation, one one's perspective, and on the nature and needs of those involved. There is a rich history and body of research regarding leadership. This module aims to make that accessible to you. The following topics are very closely related to this topic: Leadership Development, Management and Supervision . Sections of This Topic Include Introduction --- How to Approach This Topic (and Its Relationship to Leadership Development) --- What's a Leadership Theory vs. Model vs. Style? Definitions of Leadership --- Views That There is a Difference Between Leading and Managing --- View That Separating Leading and Managing Can Be Destructive Major Leadership Theories, Models, Traits and Styles --- Major Theories --- Major Models and Approaches --- Conventional Traits and Styles Different Domains of Leadership and Competencies / Qualities Needed in Each --- Understanding Leadership Competencies and Qualities --- Understanding and Using Competency Models --- Core Competencies to Lead in Any Domain --- Domain: Leading Yourself --- Domain: Leading Other Individuals --- Domain: Leading Small Groups and Teams --- Domain: Leading Large Groups and Organizations --- Domain: Leading Communities Miscellaneous Topics and Perspectives in Leadership --- Miscellaneous Topics --- Miscellaneous Perspectives Also see Related Library Topics Also See the Library's Blogs Related to Leadership In addition to the articles on this current page, see the following blogs which have posts related to Leadership. Scan down the blog's page to see various posts. Also see the section "Recent Blog Posts" in the sidebar of the blog or click on "next" near the bottom of a post in the blog. Library's Leadership Blog Library's Supervision Blog INTRODUCTION How to Approach This Topic Leadership -- Very Human Activity -- and as Diverse and Robust as any Human Activity Many people today are seeking to understand -- and many people are writing about -- the concepts and practices of leadership. There are a great many reasons for the strong popularity of the topic, including that people, groups and organizations are faced with changes like never before. Effective leadership is required to understand and navigate through the many changes. There has been an explosion of literature about leadership lately. Leading is a very human activity -- we're all human -- so there are many people who consider themselves experts on leadership. Unfortunately, many people make strong assertions about leadership without ever really understanding a great deal about leadership. Understanding leadership requires more than reading a few articles or fantasizing about what great leaders should be. The contents of this topic aim to give the reader a broad understanding of the background, contexts and approaches to leadership. The reader might best be served to explore the topic of leadership by: First, by getting a basic sense of the system of an organization, including its functions and roles, and how they are integrated. See the topic Introduction to Organizations. Next, get a basic sense of the functions of management (leading is one of them) and how they are integrated in order to lead an organization. See the topic Introduction to Management. Next, scan the topics in this topic of leadership in order to realize that there are definitions of leadership, different theories and models and traits of leadership, and different domains of leadership -- each domain requiring different competencies or qualities in order to lead in that domain. Finally, get a sense for how your abilities in leadership can be developed in an informal or formal way. See the topic Leadership Development. Learn How to Read Literature About Leadership Before you proceed to understand more about leadership, you might read about: Leadership Cube -- The Many Dimensions of Leadership Guidelines to Understanding Literature About Leadership NOTE: Some people use the term "leadership" (the capability to lead) to refer to governance or executive management (both are roles in an organization). If you're seeking information about those roles, see Chief Executive Role and/or Boards of Directors. What's a Leadership Theory vs. Model vs. Style? Leadership is often explained by using these terms. In the context of explaining leadership, the terms can be quite confusing because they are used interchangeably. Here's how you might think of them. A philosophy is a broad, general belief or set of beliefs. For example, many describe "servant leadership" as a philosophy or practice (there's more about servant leadership in this Library topic). A theory is a suggestion or speculation about why something is occurring and it might be based on a variety of philosophies, i.e., "when this happens, then the following happens" or "in this situation, the following is best to have or to do ." For example, the traits theory suggests that certain features are needed in someone to be a great leader. A model is description of how something happens or should happen - it often is depiction of a certain theory. For example, the Situational Leadership Model (Blanchard and Hershey) depicts a situational theory of leadership, and depicts when to tell, sell, participate or delegate. A style is the nature of how someone acts when enacting a certain theory or model, e.g., to be autocratic, participative or laissez-fair (hands off) in leadership style. DEFINITIONS OF LEADERSHIP Definitions of Leadership Many people believe that leadership is simply being the first, biggest or most powerful. Leadership in organizations has a different and more meaningful definition. Very simply put, a leader is interpreted as someone who sets direction in an effort and influences people to follow that direction -- the people can be oneself, another individual, a group, an organization or a community. How they set that direction and influence people depends on a variety of factors that we'll consider later on below. Here's another definition: Leadership Defined Concepts of Leadership Definition of Leadership and other related information Leadership in the Next Millennium Leadership (an Introduction) To really comprehend the "territory" of leadership, you should briefly scan some of the major theories, notice various styles of leadership and review some of the suggested traits and characteristics that leaders should have. The rest of this library should help you in this regard. Is Leading Different than Managing? (Pros and Cons) Traditional views of management associate it with four major functions: planning, organizing, leading and controlling/coordinating. However, many educators, practitioners and writers disagree with this traditional view. Views that Leading is Different Than Managing The following articles offer views different from the traditional view that leading is a major function of management. Management Styles (says they're different and compares different traits) Focus and Context: The Hub of Leadership Leadership Management vs. Leadership Manage Things, Lead People Leadership Transitions Maintaining the Delicate Balance Between Leadership and Management View That Separating "Leading" from "Managing" Can Be Destructive Another view is that to be a very effective member of an organization (whether executive, middle manager, or entry-level worker), you need skills in the functions of planning, organizing, leading and coordinating activities -- the key is you need to be able to emphasize different skills at different times. Yes, leading is different than planning, organizing and coordinating because leading is focused on influencing people, while the other functions are focused on "resources" in addition to people. But that difference is not enough to claim that "leading is different than managing" any more than one can claim that "planning is different than managing" or "organizing is different than managing". The assertion that "leading is different than managing" -- and the ways that these assertions are made -- can cultivate the view that the activities of planning, organizing and coordinating are somehow less important than leading. The assertion can also convince others that they are grand and gifted leaders who can ignore the mere activities of planning, organizing and coordinating -- they can leave these lesser activities to others with less important things to do in the organization. This view can leave carnage in organizations. Read: Founder's Syndrome -- How Organizations Suffer -- and Can Recover MAJOR LEADERSHIP THEORIES, MODELS AND TRAITS Major Theories Overview of Major Theories There are also numerous theories about leadership, or about carrying out the role of leader, e.g., servant leader, democratic leader, principle-centered leader, group-man theory, great-man theory, traits theory, visionary leader, total leader, situational leader, etc. The following articles provides brief overview of key theories. See Leadership Theories Leadership Theories Leadership Theories Leadership Theories Behavioral Theory Behavioral Theory Behavioral Theory of Leadership Contingency Theory Contingency Theory (Wikipedia) Contingency Theories Functional Theory Functional Theory of Leadership Functional Theory Great Man Theory Great Man Theory Great Man Theory of Leadership Situational Theory Situational Leadership Theory Different Types of Leadership: Prescriptive & Situational The Situational Leader Trait Theory Trait Theory Trait Theory of Leadership Transactional Theory Transactional Leadership Transactional Leadership Transformational Theory What is Transformational Leadership? Does Transformational Leadership Make a Difference? Transformational Leadership: What are the Differences that Make a Difference? Does Transformational Leadership Make a Difference? Major Models and Approaches Overview of Leadership Approaches Adaptive Leadership Adaptive Leadership Adaptive Leadership in Action - A Civic Leadership Coaching Scenario What is Adaptive Leadership? The Nature of Adaptive Leadership Adaptability and Resiliency in Leadership Lessons in Adaptive Strategy Leading Adaptive Change Adaptive Strain: Seeing the Need for Change Making Change Your Ally The Role of Adaptive Change Leader Skills for Leading the Fall Taking the Fall without becoming the “Fall Guy” Appreciative Leadership Appreciative Leadership Leadership: Appreciative Leadership Appreciation for Appreciative Leadership Practice of Appreciative Leadership Also see Appreciative Inquiry Authentic Leadership What is Authentic Leadership? Authentic Leadership Can Be Bad Leadership Also see Authenticity Charismatic Leadership What is Charismatic Leadership? Charismatic Leadership: The Elusive Factor in Organizational Effectiveness Dynamic Leadership Introduction to Dynamical Leadership by Royce Holladay Leading Dynamically: Achieve What Others Say is Impossible Heroic Leadership Heroic Leadership Center for Heroic Leadership Also see Is Transformational Leadership Overly Heroic? Are We Really Just Looking for Leaders to Save Us From Ourselves? Participative Leadership What is Participative Leadership? Participative Leadership Servant Leadership What is Servant Leadership? Servant Leadership (Wikipedia) Systems and Complexity Leadership Leadership and Systems Thinking Exploring What is Different About Complexity Management Dancing with the Butterfly - Part I (systems view of leading yourself) Dancing With the Butterfly II - Leading and Working in Complex Human Systems Dancing With the Butterfly III — How We Experience Human Systems Dancing with the Butterfly IV Dancing with the Butterfly-V Coaching Leaders -- A Systems Approach Leading the Dynamic between Complexity and Clarity Leading the Dynamic between Uncertainty and Understanding Complexity, the New Normal -- Aligning Leaders for a Complex World Complexity, the New Normal 2 -- Leading to the Essence Also see the "Unleashing the Power" series in the section Leading Yourself Systems Thinking VUCA Leadership VUCA - A Leadership Dilemma VUCA Prime - A Leader's Response Leading the Dynamic between Volatility and Vision Leading the Dynamic between Ambiguity and Agility Using VUCA -- VUCA Prime Leading a Dilemma Turbulence or Designed Instability? Also see Chaos Theory Systems Thinking Conventional Traits and Styles Overview of Conventional Styles Leadership Styles Styles of Leadership Adapt your leadership style Are you an Innovator, an Entrepreneur, or a Manager? Are You a Crisis Manager? Autocratic Leadership What is Autocratic Leadership? Advantages and Disadvantages of Autocratic Leadership Style Is Autocratic Leadership Relevant Today? Culture, Cars, and Leadership Democratic Leadership Democratic Leadership (advantages and disadvantages) Democratic Leadership Style Laissez-Faire Leadership Laissez-Faire Leadership: A Definition What is Laissez-Faire Leadership? DIFFERENT DOMAINS OF LEADERSHIP AND THE COMPETENCIES / QUALITIES NEEDED IN EACH Understanding Leadership Competencies and Qualities Challenge of Identifying Competencies Needed by Leaders The particular competencies (knowledge, skills and abilities) or qualities that a person needs in order to lead at a particular time in an organization depend on a variety of factors, including: 1) Whether that person is leading one other individual, a group or a large organization; 2) The extent of leadership skills that person already has; 3) That person's basic nature and values (competencies should be chosen that are in accordance with that nature and those values); 4) Whether the group or organization is for-profit or nonprofit, new or long-established, and large or small; 5) The particular culture (or values and associated behaviors) of whomever is being led. The above considerations can make it very challenging when trying to determine what competencies someone should have in order to be a better leader. Perhaps that's why leadership training programs in institutions typically assert a set of standard competencies, for example, decision making, problem solving, managing power and influence, and building trust. Don't Get Hung Up On Categories -- Different People Will Categorize Topics Differently If the reader had the opportunity to review a variety of leadership development programs, he or she would notice a wide variety of approaches to categorizing topics. Don't get hung up on the "right" way to categorize the topics. Competencies Are Cumulative from Leading Individuals to Organizations Leading in successively larger contexts (from individuals to groups to organization-wide efforts) requires successively larger sets of competencies. For example, "core" competencies are the minimum needed in leading others, whether other individuals, in groups or organization-wide efforts. To really be effective at leading other individuals, one should have the core competencies plus certain other competencies to lead individuals, etc Understanding and Using Competency Models A competency model is an integrated approach, a framework, that can be used to identify the competencies (new knowledge, skills and abilities) and qualities required by leadership in various contexts. Consider the following articles. How to Develop a Leadership Competency Model A Leadership Competency Model: Describing the Capacity to Lead Leadership models - customizing leadership development Leadership Competencies for the Common Good Leadership Competencies Core Competencies to Lead In Any Domain Whether you're leading yourself, others, teams, organizations or communities, there are certain skills that you need to have. Certainly, there's a wide variety of perspectives on which skills to have, but most people would probably believe the following are necessary. Other core competencies are listed later on in this overall topic, especially in regard to certain domains. Decision making -- setting a course of action Planning -- Basics (establishing goals and how they will be reached) Problem Solving (analyzing alternatives and selecting a course of action) Ethics and Social Responsibility (how to do the right thing in any situation) Creativity and Innovation (how to think out-of-the-box) Systems Thinking (seeing larger structures and patterns in processes of groups and organizations) Domain: Leading Yourself Setting Direction Career Development (includes several topics, for example, career planning, finding jobs, etc.) Personal Development (includes several topics, for example, assessments, setting goals, etc.) Effectively Leading Yourself Personal Productivity (includes several topics, for example, decision making, problem solving, etc.) Personal Wellness (includes several topics, for example, self-confidence, assertiveness, etc.) Most Forgotten Type of Leadership - Self-Leadership The New Leadership Requirement -- Be Yourself Also Consider Managing Yourself Unleashing the Power of your Story-I Unleashing the Power of your Story-II Unleashing the Power of your Story-III Unleashing the Power of your Story-IV Unleashing the Power of your Story-V Unleashing the Power of your Story-VI Also see The "Butterfly" series in the subsection "Systems-Based Leadership" in the section Major Models and Approaches. Domain: Leading Other Individuals Remember that the competencies and qualities to lead other individuals require that a person can effectively lead themselves. So be sure to read the above section on leading yourself. The activities in leading other individuals often is referred to as Supervision, so that topic also might be useful to you. Setting Direction (depending on the situation) Establishing Performance Goals Various Methods of Influencing Individuals Coaching Counseling Delegating Mentoring Selling Work Directing "Advanced" -- Effectively Leading Other Individuals Building Trust Communications (face-to-face) Conflict (Managing Interpersonal Conflict) Handling Difficult People Listening Motivating Others Managing Power and Influence Sharing Feedback Valuing Diversity Also consider: Basic Overview of Supervision Basic Guide to Management and Supervision. Who do you serve? How to Get Involved Without Micromanaging People Employee Commitment: Get Rid of “It’s Not My Job!” Summary Principles for Staying Sane When Leading Others How Does a Young New, Supervisor Lead? Domain: Leading Groups and Teams Note that some experts believe that the dynamics of a collection of about 12 people or less is quite different than a collection of 12 or more -- 12 or more becomes more like what we think of as an "organization" with a distinct culture. Many people think of a "team" as apart from a group -- they think of a team as a collection of people with a specific purpose and organized to achieve certain goals. Remember that the competencies and qualities that are required to lead groups and teams also require that a person can effectively lead themselves and other individuals. So be sure to read the above sections about those topics. Methods of Influencing Groups Facilitation Group-Based Problem Solving and Decision Making Meeting Management Project Management "Advanced" -- Effectively Leading Groups Conflict Management in Groups Group Dynamics (basics about nature of groups, stages of group development, etc) Systems Thinking (seeing larger structures and patterns in processes of groups and organizations) Team Building Domain: Leading Large Groups and Organizations Remember that the competencies and qualities that are required to lead organizations also require that a person can effectively lead themselves, other individuals, and groups and teams. So be sure to read the above sections about those topics. Setting Direction Strategic Analysis (environmental scan and SWOT analysis) Strategic Direction (mission, vision, values and goals) Methods of Influence Organizational Performance Management (includes numerous methods and movements) "Advanced" -- Effectively Leading in Organizations Organizational Change and Development Organizational Communications Leading Change - Part 1 Leadership Competencies and Change - Part 2 Leading a Dilemma Leading Change Leading from all 4Quadrants Domain: Leading Communities Remember that the competencies and qualities that are required to lead communities also require that a person can effectively lead themselves, other individuals, groups and teams, and organizations. So be sure to read the above sections about those topics. Community Organizing (includes many links) MISCELLANEOUS TOPICS AND PERSPECTIVES IN LEADERSHIP Miscellaneous Topics in Leadership Women in Leadership Women, Power, and Leadership Women and Senior Organizational Leadership Women in Leadership The Greatly Exaggerated Demise of Heroic Leadership: Gender, Power, and the Myth of the Female Advantage Women in Leadership: How Far Have We Come? The Rise of Female Leadership Women Leading Change Unconventional Views of Leadership Leadership, Leadership, Leadership -- Are We All Chanting the Wrong Mantra? Is Transformational Leadership Overly Heroic? Are We Really Just Looking for Leaders to Save Us From Ourselves? Leading Nonprofits The vast majority of guidelines about leading for-profit and government organizations also apply to nonprofits, so do consider the above information in this topic. Capacity Building in Nonprofits Leading a Nonprofit Organization Cultivating Meaning Leadership and the Quest for Meaning Miscellaneous Perspectives on Leadership Before reading and of the following, it's important to get a sense of the overall "territory" of leadership, so be sure to at least scan the sections of topics (listed at the top of this page). There is a great deal of anecdotal information about leadership -- much of it more in the realm of spiritual development than leadership. It's insufficient to learn about leadership merely by reading a few articles. New Paradigm in Management (including in Leadership) WoT's Hot and WoT's Not: Leadership in the Next Millennium 'Do As I Say, Not As I Do' Doesn't Cut It Any More Don't Wait to See Blood A Burning Commitment to Our Cause A Coach's Playbook for Leaders Sunrise Interrupted: Leadership & Choice-making Beyond Manipulating and Motivating to Leading and Inspiring Leaders Care for Organization Culture and Context Leaders Give People Space to Grow Leaders Help People See Beyond What Is to What Could Be Leadership Development Often Fails, New Managers Can't Lead | George's Employment Blawg Leadership. Methods, Models and Theories Leaders Invest in Growing and Developing People Leadership: Nature versus Nurture Tips for Leadership Impact – Influence Others A Tale of Two Managers: Command versus Commitment Building Passion and Commitment the Wal-Mart Way Growing the Leader in Us Tough Times Call for Strong Leaders Leadership: How Important Is Integrity In Today's Business World? Is Integrity an Afterthought? Five Benefits Of Leadership Development Coaching Simma's Seven Step Solution for Successful Inclusive Leadership Five key points to Strong Leadership (thus a Great Manager) 14 Things a Leader Must Do Building Better Business Acumen Leadership Development Introduction: Leadership as Developmental Leadership Interpretation: Creating Leaders -- An Ontological Model Feedback and Leadership The Creative Leadership No-Brainer, Part I The Creative Leadership No-Brainer, Part II 10 Attributes of a Leader Three Actions of Leaders 6 Tips to Delivering Customer Value (a Leadership Challenge) For the Category of Leadership: To round out your knowledge of this Library topic, you may want to review some related topics, available from the link below. Each of the related topics includes free, online resources. Also, scan the Recommended Books listed below. They have been selected for their relevance and highly practical nature. Related Library Topics Recommended Books There is an explosion of books about leadership. Some are about broad and general philosophies, paradigms, visions and values. Others are about more specific models and theories. Still, others are about even more specific tips and tools. Bibliographies of books on leadership span numerous pages. The books mentioned on these pages are a reasonable beginning. They are focused on books with both foundational principles and practical tips and tools. Note that, although many perspectives on leadership are about leading other individuals and groups, there are other domains of leadership, including leading oneself and organizations. The books referenced from this page are in regard to all domains of leadership. Leading For-Profits and Nonprofits There is much more in common between leading a for-profit and nonprofit than many people might realize. Small nonprofits are a lot more like small for-profits, than large nonprofits. Similarly, large nonprofits are a lot more like large for-profits, than small nonprofits. Nonprofits often include leading volunteers. A section, later on below, provides more books about leading specifically in nonprofits. Field Guide to Leadership and Supervision in Business by Carter McNamara, published by Authenticity Consulting, LLC. Includes step-by-step guidelines, tips and tools to effectively lead: 1. Yourself 2. Other individuals in the business 3. Groups and teams in the business 4. Business organizations 5. As well as all functions within the business organization. Many of the Library's materials about business, leadership and management are adapted from this book. Just click on the title of the book above to see the Index and Table of Contents. Leading Nonprofits The following books are recommended because of their highly practical nature and often because they include a wide range of information about this Library topic. To get more information about each book, just click on the image of the book. Also, a "bubble" of information might be displayed. You can click on the title of the book in that bubble to get more information, too. Field Guide to Leadership and Supervision With Nonprofit Staff by Carter McNamara, published by Authenticity Consulting, LLC. Includes step-by-step guidelines, tips and tools customized for personnel in nonprofits to effectively lead: 1. Yourself 2. Other individuals in the nonprofit 3. Groups and teams in the nonprofit 4. Nonprofit organizations 5. As well as all functions within the nonprofit organization.

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WHY GOOD COMMUNICATION IS GOOD BUSINESS

LISTEN UP Why Good Communication Is Good Business By Marty Blalock Why is communication important to business? Couldn’t we just produce graduates skilled at crunching numbers? Good communication matters because business organizations are made up of people. As Robert Kent, former dean of Harvard Business School has said, “In business, communication is everything.” Research spanning several decades has consistently ranked communication skills as crucial for managers. Typically, managers spend 75 to 80 percent of their time engaged in some form of written or oral communication. Although often termed a “soft” skill, communication in a business organization provides the critical link between core functions. Let’s examine three reasons why good communication is important to individuals and their organizations. Reason 1. Ineffective communication is very expensive. Communication in a business organization provides the critical link between core functions. The National Commission on Writing estimates that American businesses spend $3.1 billion annually just training people to write. The Commission surveyed 120 human resource directors in companies affiliated with the Business Roundtable, an association of chief executive officers from U.S. corporations. According to the report of the National Commission on Writing: People who cannot write and communicate clearly will not be hired, and if already working, are unlikely to last long enough to be considered for promotion. Eighty percent or more of the companies in the services and the finance, insurance and real estate sectors—the corporations with greatest employment growth potential—assess writing during hiring. Two-thirds of salaried employees in large American companies have some writing responsibility. More than 40 percent of responding firms offer or require training for salaried employees with writing deficiencies. Tips for Communication • Whether writing or speaking, consider your objectives. What do you want your listeners or readers to remember or do? To achieve an objective, you need to be able to articulate it. • Consider your audience. How receptive will it be? If you anticipate positive reception of your message, you can be more direct. • Consider your credibility in relation to your audience. Also, consider the organizational environment. Is it thick or flat, centralized or decentralized? Each will have communication implications. • How can you motivate others? Benefits are always your best bet. And if you can establish common ground, especially at the opening of a message, you can often make your audience more receptive. • Think carefully about channel choice, about the advantages and disadvantages of your choice, and the preferred channels of your audience. • If you want to have a permanent record or need to convey complex information, use a channel that involves writing. If your message is sensitive, email may not be the best choice; the immediacy of face-to-face communication can be preferable, especially when you would prefer not to have a written record. Adapted from research on communication strategy by Mary Munter of the Tuck School at Dartmouth and Jane Thomas of the University of Michigan. In a New York Times article about the Commission’s findings, Bob Kerrey, president of New School University in New York and chair of the National Commission on Writing, put it this way: “Writing is both a ‘marker’ of high-skill, high-wage, professional work and a ‘gatekeeper’ with clear equity implications. People unable to express themselves clearly in writing limit their opportunities for professional, salaried employment.” The ability to communicate was rated as the most important factor in making a manager “promotable” by subscribers to Harvard Business Review. Reason 2. The changing environment and increasing complexity of the 21st century workplace make communication even more important. Flatter organizations, a more diverse employee base and greater use of teams have all made communication essential to organizational success. Flatter organizations mean managers must communicate with many people over whom they may have no formal control. Even with their own employees, the days when a manager can just order people around are finished. The autocratic management model of past generations is increasingly being replaced by participatory management in which communication is the key to build trust, promote understanding and empower and motivate others. Because the domestic workforce is growing more diverse, an organization can no longer assume its employee constituencies are homogeneous. Employees reflect differences in age, ethnic heritage, race, physical abilities, gender and sexual orientation. Diversity is not just a matter of social responsibility; it is also an economic issue. Companies are realizing the advantage of making full use of the creativity, talents, experiences and perspectives of a diverse employee base. Teams are the modus operandi in the 21st century workplace. In a recent survey of Fortune 1000 companies, 83 percent reported that their firms use teams; teams are all about communication. The collaboration that allows organizations to capitalize on the creative potential of a diverse workforce depends on communication. Reason 3. The world’s economy is becoming increasingly global. By the end of the 20th century, 80 percent of U.S. products were competing in international markets. The direct investment of foreign-based companies grew from $9 trillion in 1966 to more than $300 trillion in 2002. Many products we assume are American, such as Purina Dog Chow and KitKat candy bars, are made overseas. Brands we may think are international, Grey Poupon mustard, Michelin tires and Evian water, are made in the United States. What We Have Here… Is a Failure to Communicate Does business language have to be dull? And full of jargon? And generally mind-numbing? Brian Fugere, Chelsea Hardaway and Joan Warshawsky don’t think so. In 2003, the three former consultants at Deloitte Consulting released a software program called Bullfighter. It includes a “jargon database” and “Bull Composite Index calculator” that allow you to measure just how bad your writing is. Better yet, it has a feature that allows you to copy and paste any awful office memo that crosses your electronic inbox, rate it for readability—or lack thereof—and email the rating anonymously to the transgressor. Now the light-hearted trio has a new book on the same subject which is winning excellent reviews: “Why Business People Speak Like Idiots: A Bullfighter’s Guide” (176 pages, Free Press, New York) The book attributes failures in business communication to four common missteps: the obscurity trap, the anonymity trap, the hard-sell trap and the tedium trap. In fact, they maintain “jargon, wordiness and evasiveness are the active ingredients of modern business speak.” But fear not: The book uses humor to help you devise ways to communicate your message —in a sales pitch, a web page, even an annual report—and avoid “corporate-speak.” —Lari Fanlund For managers, having international experience is rapidly moving from “desirable” to “essential.” A study by the Columbia University School of Business reported that successful executives must have multi-environment and multinational experience to become CEOs in the 21st century. The ability to compete in the global economy is the single greatest challenge facing business today. Organizations will want to negotiate, buy and sell overseas, consider joint ventures, market and adapt products for an international market and improve their expatriates’ success rate. All of this involves communication. Products have failed overseas sometimes simply because a name may take on unanticipated meanings in translation: the Olympic copier Roto in Chile (roto in Spanish means ‘broken’); the Chevy Nova in Puerto Rico (no va means ‘doesn’t go’); the Randan in Japan (randan means ‘idiot’); Parker Pen’s Jotter pen (‘jockstrap’ in some Latin American markets). This type of mishap is not an American monopoly: A successful European chocolate and fruit product was introduced into the U.S. with the unfortunate name “Zit.” Naming a product is communication at its simplest level. The overall implications of intercultural communication for global business are enormous. Take the case of EuroDisney, later renamed Disneyland Paris. For the year 1993, the theme park lost approximately US $1 billion. Losses were still at US $1 million a day in 1994-95. There were many reasons for this, including a recession in Europe, but intercultural insensitivity was also a very important factor. No attention was paid to the European context or to cultural differences in management practice, labor relations, or even such simple matters as preferred dining hours or availability of alcohol and tobacco. EuroDisney signals the danger for business practitioners immersed in financial forecasting, market studies and management models when they overlook how culture affects behavior. Few things are more important to conducting business on a global scale than skill in intercultural communication. Improve Your Skills Executive Education offers a three-day course in “Improving Communication Skills.” The program looks at ways to strengthen interpersonal communications skills, resolve conflicts and communicate with confidence. For all these reasons, communication is crucial to business. Specialized business knowledge is important, but not enough to guarantee success. Communication skills are vital. Gary Lessuisse, the new assistant dean for master’s programs at the School of Business, who recruited UW students for many years for Ford Motor Company, found effective communication in the workplace to be essential. His advice? Think before you communicate. Be an active listener. Be focused on your audience in your response. Be brief and be gone. Marty Blalock is a senior lecturer and coordinator of professional communication at the School of Business. This fall, she taught a new undergraduate course, Intercultural Communication in Business. Another new undergraduate business course, Business Presentations and Meetings, is also being taught this fall by Senior Lecturer Scott Troyan.

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COMPLICATING FACTORS IN BUSINESS WORLD

COMPLICATING FACTORS IN CORPORATE WORLD..............................

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FRAMING PROBLEMS

Problems defining what the conflict is about and how it is being addressed ;

 

Confusing Interests with Positions

Often parties are so committed to a single position (what they say they want) that they fail to consider why they are holding that position, and whether it really is likely to achieve their interests (what they really want).  Framing conflicts in terms of positions often obscures win-win solutions that become apparent when the conflict is framed on the basis of interests.

Confusing Material Interests With Fundamental Human Needs

Many intractable conflicts involve the inability of one or more groups to meet their fundamental human needs--needs for such things as identity, security, dignity, or control. Often, however, the importance of these needs is overlooked, and conflicts are defined in material terms only.

Incompatible Frames

Often, one party will define a conflict in terms of negotiable interests (that is, material things that can be traded, such as wealth or land), while another defines the conflict in terms of rights, values, or needs (all of which are intangible things that are not usually considered negotiable). While such disagreements do not make resolution completely impossible, they do make it harder to obtain.

Overly Competitive Approaches to a Conflict

People often approach disputes in a very competitive, win-lose way. They assume that the only way they can win is if the other side loses. Consequently, they behave very competitively, seeking the best possible outcome for themselves, without considering how this will affect people on the other side.

"Into-the-Sea" Framing

Sometimes, disputants seem to want their opponent to disappear forever, as if they could just be pushed "into the sea." This kind of framing can lead to genocide or to efforts to force opponents into exile. In less extreme situations, this problem may lead a party to demand concessions that their opponent cannot possibly accept. When conflicts are approached in this way, protracted confrontation becomes inevitable.

De-Humanization of Opponents

Violent, catastrophic confrontations seldom occur unless the contending parties have de-humanized one another. Once this de-humanization occurs, opponents are seen as having no legitimate rights and any atrocities are considered justifiable. The Geneva Conventions limit this effect somewhat by setting minimal standards for the treatment of combatants. However, history has shown many examples of horrific treatment of combatants and civilians both within and outside the context of war.

Conflict Emergence

Conflicts are not really identified as problems until they "emerge" from a latent state to a manifest state.  How this occurs is a major determinant of the constructiveness or destructiveness of the conflict as it plays out.

Not My Problem

Conflicts often arise when one person or group seeks to change the behavior of another, but the other does not acknowledge that a problem exists or maintains that it is not their responsibility. They are, therefore, likely to refuse to participate in any efforts to resolve the issue.

Framing Conflict Itself as the Problem

Often people assume that any conflict is abnormal and bad. However, conflict is a normal and unavoidable part of all relationships and societies. It is even essential for the healthy functioning of a relationship or social group, because conflict allows people to adapt to new situations and invent new approaches to problems. What is bad (though also not abnormal) is the destructive ways people commonly deal with conflicts.

Ambiguous Goals

Often people who are confused about what a conflict is really about or what is important to them will have ambiguous (that is, confused) goals. This often results in ineffective actions which confuse or even enrage the other side, often needlessly. The same thing can occur with third parties who enter a conflict to "help." If they do not have clear goals for their for their activities, they can easily do more harm than good.

Failing to Identify Available Options for Dealing with the Situation

Often people involved in a conflict will assume that there is only one effective way of dealing with the situation.  If they are used to using force to get their own way, they will assume that force is the only available option.  If they are lawyers, they may assume legal action is the only option.  If they are mediators, they may assume mediation (or negotiation) is the only available approach, without considering the possibility that another approach would be more effective.

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SCOPING PROBLEMS

Problems determining who is involved, what they think, and  the context or the environment of the conflict. 

 

Failing to Identify All of the Other Parties 

In complex conflicts involving multiple people and groups, it is easy to overlook some people who are likely to be affected by the conflict. If a "solution" is reached which ignores these peoples' interests or harms them significantly, these "quiet" or hidden groups are likely to emerge and block the agreement.

Failing to Identify All of the Issues in a Conflict

Disputants often overlook issues which are important to others, but are not important to themselves. People may not realize that there is more than one way to see a situation, or that other people or groups may define the problem in a different way.

Failure to Identify Opponents' Options

Parties often fail to identify all of the options that are available to their opponents.   They may assume that their opponents will simply give in because they have no viable options. Or, they may assume that their opponents will fight to the end, unwilling to work out a mutually agreeable settlement, when that approach would actually be desired by the other side.

Differing Definitions of "Justice"

Often conflicts involve different definitions of justice. What seems "just" or "fair" to one group very often seems unjust to an opposing group. Often the prevailing definition of justice is set by the group with the most power, while low-power groups see their inferior position as unjust. 

Ignoring the Conflict History or Current Related Disputes

Sometimes people think that the dispute they are involved in is new or unique, when it is actually part of an existing conflict or the reappearance of a long-term conflict. Understanding the importance of the way the conflict was handled in the past is key to being able to confront it effectively in the present.  In addition, conflicts do not stand alone, but are often related to on-going political, economic, social, or cultural situations. Disputants must be aware of the importance of related conflicts if they are to be able to confront their own conflict constructively.

Inadequate Information Gathering

When conflicts are complex--involving a large number of disputants and/or issues--parties must be able to gather a great deal of information before they can plan an effective confrontation strategy. Often, time or resource limitations prevent adequate information gathering. In other circumstances, information is collected, but it is interpreted incorrectly. In either case, the result is likely to inhibit effective action.

 

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COMMUNICATION PROBLEMS

Problems talking with and/or understanding people involved in the conflict (on your side and on other sides).

 

Misinterpretation of Communication

Even in ordinary circumstances, people often say things that are not interpreted in the way the statement was intended. When people are angry with each other, the likelihood of misinterpreting communication is greatly increased--to the point where it is almost inevitable.

Failure to Understand an Opponent's Perspective

People often view conflicts from very different perspectives depending upon such things as cultural background, economic position, and religious beliefs. In order for the parties to communicate effectively, they need to understand (though not necessarily agree with) the perspectives of other parties to a conflict.

**TOUR** Cultural Barriers to Effective Communication

Culture affects both the substance and style of communication. Culture influences how people express themselves, to whom they talk, and how. For example, while some people may feel comfortable talking openly about their feelings with anyone, others will only talk openly and honestly with very close friends, while others may not talk that way at all. Such differences can cause people from different cultures to misinterpret both what is said and what is left unsaid, leading to misunderstandings.

Language Differences

When conflicts involve people who speak different languages (or even different dialects), it is very easy for misunderstandings to arise. Even when skilled translators are used, it is difficult for translators to transmit complex feelings and emotions as clearly as they are originally spoken.

Misinterpreted Motives

Motives can be misinterpreted as easily as statements can be misunderstood. When parties are in conflict, there is a tendency to assume the opponent's motives are malign, even when they are not.

Inaccurate and Overly Hostile Stereotypes

Often, communication difficulties arise because people think they know all they need to know about their opponents and that further communication is unnecessary. Yet images of opponents tend to be overly hostile and exaggerated. Opponents are seen to be more extreme and outrageous than they really are.

Lack of Communication Channels/Avoided Communication

Often disputants do not have reliable methods for communicating with opposing parties. This may be because they do not want to communicate, or it may be because they are afraid to contact their opponents or have no way to do so.  Sometimes the parties will break-off communication as a form of protest after a particularly disagreeable incident. However, the lack of communication can significantly increase the risk of future incidents.

Poor Listening Skills

Successful communication requires that the parties listen actively and carefully--asking questions and confirming interpretations to make sure they understand what the other person is meaning. People seldom work this hard at listening, however. Often in conflictual situations, they hardly listen at all  Rather, while their opponent is talking, they are busy planning their own response. This frequently leads to misunderstandings.

Secrecy and Deception

Sometimes information which is critical to the accurate understanding of a situation is not available to all parties. This frequently occurs in business conflicts, when companies try to keep details about products and processes secret.  It also occurs in international conflicts when governments keep secrets for "security" reasons. This can happen in interpersonal conflicts as well when people simply choose to keep particular facts to themselves.

Poor communication also can arise when a party attempts to strengthen its position by deliberately providing opponents and other parties with misleading or inaccurate information.

Inflammatory Statements

Sometimes communication can make matters worse rather than better.  When communication is threatening, hostile, or inflammatory it can do more to escalate a conflict than it can to defuse it. 

Inflammatory Media

Negative and inflammatory publicity is a problem in conflicts--before, during, and after negotiations. Before negotiations, the media can intensify a controversy, making it harder to get people to work together, or even talk. In the early stages of negotiation, parties often advance tentative ideas which could easily backfire if publicized. The resulting outcry and complaints could easily undermine an otherwise promising negotiation effort. Even after negotiated solutions have been developed, negative publicity can rekindle conflicts, making implementation of agreements more difficult.

Inadequate Information Gathering/Time Constraints

Gathering the information needed to sensibly deal with conflict situations is time-consuming and expensive. In some cases, misunderstandings will arise because of the failure of the parties to invest the time and resources required to obtain important information.  Sometimes adequate time is simply not available. When direct communication is cut off, it is easy to rely on unreliable third party sources--rumor and media stories especially. These are notoriously error-prone, and can lead to serious misunderstandings.

Crisis Communication

In crisis situations, normal communication channels are likely to be much less effective. They often operate too slowly to keep up with the rapid pace of events, or they may have been cut off entirely.  They may also be unable to resist the increased hostility and distrust which crises are likely to create.

New, Poorly Informed Participants

In protracted conflicts, the people involved continually change. Often those playing leadership roles give up their positions and other individuals take their place. These new leaders frequently have a very limited understanding of the conflict's history and the current situation. This lack of information can cause these people to take actions which they would not have taken, had they been better informed.

Constituent Communication Problems

When dialogue or negotiation occurs among a small group of people, they may develop communication skills and a level of interpersonal understanding that is not shared by others outside the immediate circle. If these small group processes are intended to have a wider effect, it is necessary to transfer the learning that takes place in the small group to the larger constituencies which the group represents. Often, however, communication between the small group members and their constituents is not adequate to expand the learning beyond the immediate circle of participants.

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FACT-FINDING PROBLEMS

Problems obtaining information about facts and uncertainties.

 

Conflicts of Interest / Lack of Credibility

The believability of fact-finding efforts is sharply reduced when the experts doing the fact-finding work are likely to benefit personally by providing misleading information. In this case, opponents and the general public are likely to doubt the truthfulness or accuracy of the expert's conclusions--even if the expert is acting reasonably.

Contradictory Experts

Conflicts often involve different experts making contradictory statements about important facts. Because the general public lacks technical expertise, it has no way to determine who to believe. As a result, people tend to reject expert analysis and believe what they want to believe.  When this happens, the potential benefits of objective fact finding are likely to be lost.

Understanding the Meaning of Facts

Fact-finding efforts often involve complex issues which are difficult for the general public to sensibly interpret. Bad decisions can result when the parties and key decision makers fail to understand what the facts really mean.

Inability to Deal with Uncertainty

Fact-finding efforts are also limited by the skills of the experts. In many cases, the best available technical analyses are unable to eliminate key uncertainties,  and decisions must be made in the absence of firm information. Decision makers are often reluctant to act until they have more information, leading to a variety of problems such as "analysis paralysis" and delay-default. (see below)

Analysis Paralysis/Delay-Default

Often the parties attempt to avoid uncertainty by conducting study after study, in an effort to resolve an issue once and for all. Where irreducible uncertainties are involved, this search for certainty leads to endless delays. This is decision making by default-- deciding to continue the status quo -- which may not be the best choice, even given the uncertainties.

Complexity Muddle

Technical disputes can become so complex that the parties have trouble implementing a process capable of addressing the essential issues. The result can be a confusing muddle in which the issues are never effectively addressed.

 

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PROCEDURAL PROBLEMS

Problems with the formal (and informal) processes which the parties use to interact with one another.

 

Excluded Parties

Trust in the fairness of a dispute-resolution or decision-making process can quickly be lost if interested parties believe that their concerns are being ignored, or they are being excluded from the process.

Strategic Delays

Often democratic decision making processes designed to resolve short-term disputes can be deliberately delayed by parties wishing to avoid a potentially unfavorable decision. The resulting delays can allow people who oppose change to win without ever having to demonstrate the superiority of their position.

Rushed Decisions

Democratic decision making processes can be rushed by parties wishing to avoid addressing the hard issues. When the process is rushed, decisions are often made before facts are adequately considered or before all the parties have had an opportunity to present their case.

Lack of Clear Goals

Problems often develop when parties (either disputants or intermediaries) do not have clear goals. This tends to make their actions less effective than they might otherwise be and can lead to misunderstandings on the part of their opponents as well.

Meaningless Public Involvement

If the parties conclude that available opportunities for participation in dispute resolution processes are meaningless, then they are likely to withdraw their support for the overall process and pursue more confrontational strategies.

Complexity Muddle

Many conflicts involve so many overlapping issues that it is difficult to develop a process which addresses all of the important issues and allows the parties to participate effectively. The result is often a process which is so confused that it cannot make sensible decisions. This confusion can also result in seemingly endless delays in the dispute resolution process.

Vested Interests

Decision-making and dispute-resolution processes often favor small groups of individuals with an intense interest in the conflict over the much larger population of people with a more limited interest.  They can result in decisions which favor individual and small group interests over the collective interests of the larger society.

Dictatorial Process

Especially troublesome are dictatorial processes in which an individual or small group is able to routinely make decisions which favor their interests over the larger interests of society. Often, this situation is perpetuated by the dictator's willingness to use violent force against opponents.

Timing Problems

If timed poorly, good processes will not work.  This is especially true for negotiation, mediation, and other consensus based processes which must be undertaken when the parties are all ready to participate.

 

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ESCALATION PROBLEMS

Problems involving the intensification of the conflict

Contention Dynamics

Contention dynamics are dynamics that encourage the escalation of conflicts, often to the point where excessive force is used on both sides.

Runaway Responses

Runaway responses are dynamics that support escalation.  Paul Wehr discusses Coleman's analysis of these processes.

Polarization

In an effort to build their power base, parties often seek alliances with other interest groups, which agree to help each other as they pursue their separate objectives. In order to remain competitive, interest groups tend to form as many alliances as possible. Over time, this process tends to divide communities into two large and opposing alliances--a process called "polarization."

Personal Attacks

Escalation can be intensified when the parties use tactics which personally attack the integrity and character of their opponents. This can change the character of a conflict so that personal hatred and vindictiveness, rather than the pursuit of just solutions, dominate the debate.  In making public statements, disputants often try to encourage their supporters by trying to find the most clever way of insulting their opponents and proclaiming their own virtue. This may bring cheers from supporters, but these unnecessary insults can intensify an opponents' hostility and can thereby contribute to the escalation spiral.

Violence

The escalation of a conflict to the point of violent confrontation can change a conflict so that concern over substantive issues and questions of justice is replaced by fear, hatred, and a desire for self-defense and vengeance. These effects are compounded when the use of violence is seen as excessive, illegitimate, or unnecessary.

Sacrifice Trap

Often parties involved in serious conflicts are called upon to make enormous sacrifices including, in violent conflicts, the loss of human lives. Once such sacrifices have been made, it is extremely difficult for leaders to admit that they have made a mistake and the sacrifices were unnecessary. This reluctance to admit past errors often leads the parties to pursue destructive strategies long after their destructiveness and futility has become apparent.

Tactical Escalation

As conflicts escalate, public interest and willingness to take sides generally increases. This can lead to substantial increases in the level of support enjoyed by some or all of the parties. Knowing this, disputants often deliberately escalate conflicts in order to build support. While this approach can be effective, it usually generates support for the other side as well. The result is often an intensification of the conflict with little change in the relative power of the parties.

Out-Group / Enemy Image

Often groups define their identity by their common opposition to some enemy or "out-group". While this process can be very effective in strengthening the "in-group," it does so by significantly intensifying the intergroup conflict. Nevertheless, this process is often deliberately encouraged by leaders who use it to unify their supporters and overcome internal opposition.

De-Humanization

Violent catastrophic confrontations seldom occur unless the contending parties have de-humanized one another. Once this de-humanization occurs, opponents are treated as if they have no legitimate rights and all manners of atrocities are considered justifiable. The Geneva Conventions limit this effect somewhat by setting minimal standards for the treatment of combatants. However, recent wars have illustrated that there is no limit to what can and has been done to both combatants and civilians.

Extremists

Most interest groups have supporters who take an extreme view of the conflict. These extremists tend to favor more extreme and often violent tactics. They are also likely to be very reluctant to accept any form of compromise. In their pursuit of complete victory, extremists often take aggressive actions which other members of the group oppose. Problems arise when these extremists become viewed as representing the views and tactics of the larger group. This tends to lead opponents to conclude that they must respond with extreme tactics of their own. The provocative actions of extremists can also threaten broadly supported efforts to de-escalate conflicts.

Crises

In crisis situations, disputants are often forced to make important decisions very quickly with information which is usually incomplete and unreliable. Given such uncertainty, decision makers often feel that they must take a cautious, worst-case approach and assume that their opponents are acting in the most threatening way possible. This often leads the parties to take more forceful actions than necessary, which dramatically intensifies the conflict. For example, in cases where military forces are on a hair-trigger alert, parties are under intense pressure to respond instantly and forcefully for fear that the other party's quick action will allow them to seize the advantage. 

Emotions

The escalation process is commonly accompanied by very strong emotions which make it difficult for the parties to calmly assess the situation and determine how best to advance their interests. Since emotions lie at the core of many difficult conflicts, they must be addressed and cannot be simply suppressed.

Stalemate

Escalation can intensify conflicts to the point where the parties will use all available resources to protect their interests. Often, this leads to a standoff in which neither party has the power to win, and neither party is willing to back down or admit defeat. This can be extremely destructive to all sides, as they continue to pour resources and lives into the struggle, with little or no hope of victory.

Inflammatory Media

The media (newspapers, radio, and television) in many countries make more money when they have a larger audience. Audiences can be expanded, it is commonly believed, by stressing extreme news and ideas, rather than common occurrences. For this reason, the media tends to report on the most outrageous occurrences and the most extreme statements, rather than conciliatory gestures or efforts to compromise or solve problems. This happens with governmentally controlled media as well, if the government wants to use the media to influence public opinion against another group.  Thus the media often contributes greatly to the escalation of conflicts.

Procrastination of Response

Often disputants or third parties realize a conflict is getting out of hand, but they delay corrective efforts until the situation is really unmanageable.

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